Throughout the twentieth century, the horrors of totalitarianism infected many countries, with the economic fallout of the First World War providing fertile soil for radical individuals on both sides of the political spectrum.
The Soviet Union, particularly under the leadership of Vladimir Lenin and Joseph Stalin, was a brutal regime, exemplifying the very worst of left-wing extremism. Political prisoners worked to the point of exhaustion inside the Gulag, whilst everyday citizens had to contend with low food supplies and a lack of individual freedom.
These aspects of the Soviet Union are common knowledge for those with an interest in history, but fewer people are aware of the cultural changes that took place under Stalin’s leadership.
Cult of Personality
Lenin died in January 1924, and during the leadership struggle that followed, Stalin marketed himself as Lenin’s successor.
He continued to do this in the wake of his rise to power. Stalin appeared side-by-side with Lenin on posters and newspapers, with both men having equal prominence in Soviet propaganda. Gradually, however, Lenin’s importance started to diminish, and the propaganda machine put greater emphasis on Stalin, whilst Lenin - quite literally - faded into the background.
Though not as dynamic or aggressive as someone like Adolf Hitler, Stalin was still able to develop his own cult of personality with the help of his supporters. On the 1st of January 1934, Pravda (the official newspaper of the Communist Party), published an article by Karl Radek, who described Stalin as the party’s supreme being and Lenin’s true successor. Other articles echoed these sentiments throughout the 1930s.
Stalin’s popularity was also boosted by the popularity of his own writings. Helped along by the rise in literacy levels, Stalin’s books sold in numbers that dwarfed both Lenin and Marx. Between 1932 and 1933, the public bought 16.5 million books and pamphlets by Stalin.
This may seem strange, but Stalin was seen as a sacred, Christ-like figure by many Soviet citizens. Stalin was regularly presented with his arm raised on a red background, similar to iconographic images of Christ. This was rather ironic given the Soviet Union was supposed to be an atheistic society.
Art and Socialist Realism
The Communist Party utilised artists in their quest to reshape culture. Artists were guided by the principle of ‘socialist realism’. Far from depicting the reality (and the horrors) of the Soviet Union, socialist realism presented an idealised view of society.
‘The Industry of Socialism’ exhibition - which opened on the 18th of March 1939 - celebrated (and exaggerated) economic and social achievements. The Communist Party invited artists to contribute works on specific topics, with each exhibition room having its own theme. For example, one room featured images of shops bursting with food and peasants harvesting rich produce.
Other industries were also infected with socialist realism. Creative individuals were forced to join unions, such as the Union of Soviet Composers or the Union of Soviet Journalists. If their work was deemed to go against the ethos of the regime, they were expelled from their union and were unable to work.
Indeed, censorship was a core aspect of Stalin’s regime. The Department for Culture and Propaganda made sure newspapers, books, magazines, films, poems, plays, and radio scripts were approved by a team of government censors before being released to the public.
Education
Though the indoctrination of children in the Soviet Union never reached the terrifying heights of Nazi Germany, Stalin and the Communist Party were still keen to influence the classroom.
Under the new regime, strict classroom discipline and respect for teachers was vital. All the children wore uniforms, with girls wearing jumpers and boys wearing military-style outfits. These clothes were designed to make children feel like members of a group, rather than individuals.
The goal of the education system was to train young people for positions in the economic, social, political, and cultural sectors of society. School attendance rose from eight million in 1914 to thirty-two million in 1939, with children learning an array of subjects, including history, literature, maths, science, and foreign languages. Adults were also encouraged to attend literacy lessons if they were unable to read and write.
After a decade of Stalin’s leadership, levels of illiteracy dropped from fifty per cent to nineteen per cent. And between 1913 and 1940, the number of specialists with higher education qualifications increased sevenfold.
Afterword
Whilst the most frightening parts of the Soviet Union will always stand out the most, the cultural changes that took place in the 1930s are still worth knowing about, for they demonstrate the all-encompassing nature of totalitarian regimes.
Artistic freedoms were abandoned in favour of political propaganda that portrayed the Soviet Union in a way that did not reflect reality. Stalin, meanwhile, developed his own cult of personality, with many viewing him as a great saviour, rather than a wicked tyrant.
Though the educational improvements that took place during Stalin’s regime do deserve praise, these achievements were not enough to counterbalance the more disturbing aspects of the Soviet Union.
Sources
The Soviet Tragedy: A History of Socialism in Russia, 1917-1991 by Martin Malia
The Dictators: Hitler's Germany and Stalin's Russia by R.J. Overy
Hitler, Stalin, and Mussolini: Totalitarianism in the Twentieth Century by Bruce Pauley